Psychology Development

Multi-Store Model, Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

The Atkinson and Shiffrin interpretation of memory is often viewed as simplistic, being seen as a 'fragile temporary storage depot for incoming information' with a particular emphasis on the function of STM. It carries explanations of separate STM and LTM, along with ideas concerning capacity, duration and encoding with the latter being presented as visual, acoustic and semantic. These are basic theories developed further by Baddeley (1986) who saw acoustic encoding as the preferred method and then Brandimonte (1992) who suggested that under some circumstances visual encoding was superior. Retrospectively, Eysenck & Keane (1995) point out that although outdated, the model has proved to be an important function in providing a systematic account of the structures and the process of memory. However, the main theme is one of memory being heavily reliant upon attention and rehearsal, with retained memory seen as the ability to store information rather than actively being able to process the material. Diagram of Multi-Store Model specific to STM

Levels of Processing, Craik and Lockhart (1972)

Some psychologists do not consider it necessary to distinguish between short and long term memory and the original work of Craik and Lockhart (1972) is one such theory. According to the Craik and Lockhart theory 'levels of processing' is the central mechanism through which the joint operation of STM and LTM form part of a controlled process of recall.

Using their theory Craik and Lockhart were able to develop a more holistic notion of recall, by explaining that it is the level at which the information is processed that decides the amount of retrievable information available in LTM. The following pieces of research are essential in this appreciation. Craik and Tulving (1975) who describe these three levels as physical or shallow, acoustic or phonemic and semantic, which they refer to as being deep processing. Hyde and Jenkins (1973) who suggested that due to a deep level of processing there would appear to be no difference between 'intentional learning and incidental learning'. Whilst the work of Hunt & Elliot (1980), Craik and Lockhart (1986) and Eysenck and Keane (1995) make the point that 'depth and elaboration of the stimulus substantially effects recall and retrieval'.

In other words, it is an advance in our appreciation of rehearsal from what Atkinson and Shiffrin saw simply as being a 'shallow maintenance rehearsal' , into what could be considered as 'elaborated deep processing rehearsal' making substantial links to semantic associations in recall ability. Although a useful and welcomed explanation of mental processing rather than rigid structures, this too has its critics amongst whom would be Tyler et al (1979) who questioned the idea that depth of processing alone is responsible for retention. Diagram of Levels of Processing

Working Memory, Baddely and Hitch (1974)

The notion of 'working memory' put forward by Baddeley and Hitch produced a sea of change in our understanding of the STM function. Here the mechanisms of memory are described as being a thoroughly 'dynamic and flexible' operation, as opposed to a structured storage system. This model accounts for memory as being incoming information processed by a central executive using two slave systems, the visuo-spatial store or scratch pad and the phonological loop.

Although comparitively little is know about the central executive, apart from its role in attention and ability to synthesise information from the slave systems into STM and LTM. The model suggests that the central executive is responsible for co-ordinating essential links between the two slave systems in addition to supervising the important relationship between acoustic and visual buffer components of the phonological loop. These are identified as being the articulatory control system and phonological store, the subject of research covered by Baddeley (1973 & 1975). In other words, the model offers a clear progression of understanding, in the ability not only to store information but to simultaneously process the encoded material for retained recall.

Psychology of the Adolescent Learner

A customised module designed to reflect the requirements of NQT's containing an easy to understand format of relevant theories, additional research opportunities together with a practical guide to the task of writing up the notes for busy teachers!

The aim of the course is to unpack the differences between three A Level students who, although similar in age and social background are quite different in their individual approach to engagement with structured learning. The course is delivered within a fully interactive environment using an enjoyable exploration of cognitive development for these not untypical 14-19 year old learners.

© Bennett cla 2003

Development of the Independent Learner at a Level

For many students the move from GCSE is a difficult transition in the application of learning, whilst for others the progression from the familiar teacher-led session into a more disciplined study of the text within a broad canvas of research can often become a daunting experience as part of independent learning. How this essential student need is encouraged and nurtured into academic maturity is carefully addressed using case studies and a hands-on teaching practitioner approach.

© Bennett cla 2002